Hemp as an Industrial Crop: From Ropes to Bioplastics

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is far more than the plant that public debate usually reduces to its psychoactive compound THC. In fact, hemp ranks among the most versatile crops in human history. For millennia it supplied fibres for ropes, sails and textiles, seeds for food and oil, and its robust stalks served as building material. Today industrial hemp – varieties with a THC content below 0.3 percent – is experiencing a remarkable renaissance as a sustainable raw material for dozens of industries. This article traces the economic and industrial history of hemp and examines its modern applications in construction, plastics, cosmetics and food production.

## The Beginnings: Hemp as a Strategic Resource of Antiquity

The industrial use of hemp begins in the Neolithic period. Archaeological finds from present-day China, dated to around 8,000 BCE, show impressions of hemp fibres in ceramics. As early as the Shang Dynasty (c. 1,600–1,046 BCE), hemp was a central raw material for ropes and coarse textiles. The long fibres of the hemp stalk – known as bast fibres – are distinguished by exceptional tensile strength, making them ideal for cordage.

In the advanced civilizations of the Mediterranean, hemp was also well known. The Phoenicians, regarded as antiquity's most skilled seafarers, used hemp ropes for their ships. The Romans cultivated hemp on a large scale and called it cannabis – a word probably derived from Scythian or Greek. Pliny the Elder described the qualities of hemp rope in his first-century CE Naturalis Historia and mentioned that the finest ropes were made from hemp grown in the Rosea region of central Italy.

The strategic importance of hemp as a raw material for cordage and sailcloth cannot be overstated. In a world where seafaring was the key to trade and power projection, control of hemp-growing regions was a matter of national security. A single warship of the British Navy in the 18th century required between 60 and 100 tonnes of hemp for ropes and sails. This enormous demand made hemp one of Europe's most important trade commodities.

## Ropes and Sails: Hemp on the World's Oceans

European seafaring from the 15th to the 19th century was unthinkable without hemp. Every ship that crossed the Atlantic, Indian or Pacific Ocean depended on hemp ropes and hemp sails. The English word canvas (sailcloth) derives etymologically directly from cannabis.

The British Royal Navy, for centuries the world's most powerful fleet, was Europe's single largest consumer of hemp. Russia – particularly the regions around Riga and Saint Petersburg – was the main supplier. Britain's dependence on Russian hemp was so great that it influenced geopolitical decisions. Historians argue that one reason for Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 was his intention to cut off Britain's hemp supply. The Continental System that Napoleon imposed against Britain in 1806 was intended, among other things, to disrupt the hemp trade – a measure Russia ultimately rejected, contributing to the rift between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I.

In the American colonies, hemp cultivation was not merely permitted but sometimes legally required. Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania enacted laws in the 17th and 18th centuries obliging farmers to grow hemp. George Washington and Thomas Jefferson grew hemp on their plantations – Washington recorded sowing and harvesting times in his diary in detail. The first and second drafts of the American Declaration of Independence were written on hemp paper. The Betsy Ross flag, the first Stars and Stripes, was made of hemp cloth.

## Paper: A Revolution from Hemp Fibres

One of hemp's most consequential products was paper. The oldest surviving paper in the world, found in a Han Dynasty tomb in China and dated to around 100 BCE, consists of hemp fibres. While paper-making from hemp and other plant fibres was refined over centuries in China, the knowledge only reached Europe via the Arab world in the 8th century.

The Gutenberg Bible, printed around 1455, was printed on paper partly made from hemp fibres. For centuries hemp, along with linen (from flax) and cotton rags, was the primary raw material for paper production. It was not until the 19th century that wood began to displace hemp as a paper feedstock – a development driven less by quality than by cost. Wood was cheaper and available in larger quantities, especially once chemical pulping processes (kraft and sulphite methods) were developed.

The displacement of hemp by wood in the paper industry had far-reaching ecological consequences. Wood-based paper production requires massive deforestation, the use of large amounts of water and aggressive chemicals. Hemp paper is more environmentally friendly by comparison: hemp regrows in four months, one hectare of hemp produces four times as much pulp as one hectare of forest, and hemp paper can be recycled more often than wood-based paper. Today hemp paper products are enjoying a modest renaissance in niche markets, particularly for premium print products, speciality papers and cigarette paper.

## Textiles: From Workwear to Designer Fabric

Hemp textiles have accompanied humanity since the Neolithic period. Before the spread of cotton, hemp alongside wool and linen was the most important textile raw material across much of Europe and Asia. Hemp fibres are naturally resistant, antibacterial and UV-stable – properties that made them ideal for workwear, uniforms and maritime textiles.

The best-known example of hemp textiles in popular culture is the jeans. Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis patented their reinforced work trousers in 1873. The earliest versions of these trousers were made from a sturdy hemp-cotton blend – the fabric that became known as denim has its origin in the French city of Nîmes (serge de Nîmes). Although modern jeans are made almost exclusively of cotton, it was the durability of the hemp fabric that inspired the concept.

In the 20th century, cheap cotton from the colonies displaced hemp almost entirely from the textile industry. The cannabis prohibition from the 1930s onward did the rest, as cultivation of industrial hemp was also severely restricted or banned in many countries.

Since the 1990s, hemp textiles have been experiencing a slow but steady revival. Modern processing techniques – particularly enzymatic treatment and cottonisation – make hemp fibres softer and more versatile. Today brands such as Patagonia, Levi's and numerous sustainability labels offer garments made from hemp or hemp blends. The ecological advantages are compelling: hemp requires 50 percent less water than cotton, needs no pesticides, and improves soil quality through its deep root system.

## Building Materials: Hempcrete and Insulation

One of the most fascinating modern applications of industrial hemp lies in construction. Hempcrete is a composite material made from the woody core of the hemp stalk (hemp shives), lime and water. The material is lightweight, breathable, fire-resistant and offers excellent thermal insulation. Unlike conventional concrete, hempcrete is carbon-negative: during its production, the lime component absorbs CO₂ from the atmosphere, and the hemp shives themselves store the carbon the plant captured during growth.

The history of hempcrete reaches further back than one might expect. Archaeological investigations of a bridge in the southern French Département Drôme, dated to the 6th century CE, found remains of a hemp-lime mixture. In India and China, similar material combinations had been used for centuries. The modern rediscovery of hempcrete began in the 1980s in France, where engineer Charles Rasetti used the material for the renovation of historic half-timbered houses.

Today hempcrete is used commercially in numerous countries. In the UK, France, Belgium and the Netherlands, specialised companies build turnkey hempcrete houses. The advantages are considerable: excellent thermal insulation (thermal conductivity of 0.06–0.09 W/mK), natural moisture regulation, pest resistance, fire class B1 (flame retardant) and a lifespan exceeding 100 years.

Beyond hempcrete, hemp fibres are also used as insulation material. Hemp insulation boards and batts offer an ecological alternative to glass wool and rock wool. They are free from harmful substances, skin-friendly during installation and deliver comparable insulation values. In Germany, hemp insulation products are sold by companies such as Thermo Natur and Caparol, and are certified to DIN standards.

## Bioplastics: The Future Belongs to Hemp

Plastics made from hemp are not a new concept. As early as 1941, Henry Ford presented his famous Hemp Car – an automobile whose body panels were made from a composite based on hemp and soy. Ford demonstrated the material's strength by striking the body with a sledgehammer without damaging it. The project was halted by the Second World War and the rise of the petrochemical industry, but the idea survived.

Modern hemp bioplastics research has made significant progress in recent years. Various biopolymers can be produced from hemp fibres and hemp cellulose that can replace fossil-based plastics in numerous applications. The advantages of hemp bioplastics are manifold: biodegradability (depending on type, within 3–6 months under industrial composting conditions), a smaller carbon footprint than petroleum-based plastics, a renewable raw material, and the ability to use existing plastics processing machinery.

Hemp-fibre-reinforced composites are already used in the automotive industry. BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Audi and other manufacturers use natural fibre composites (including hemp) for interior panels, door trims and boot covers. These materials are lighter than glass-fibre-reinforced plastics, which helps reduce vehicle weight and thus fuel consumption.

Startups such as Kanesis (Italy), HempPlastic (Canada) and Dun Agro (Netherlands) are developing hemp bioplastic granulates that can be used as drop-in solutions in existing injection moulding and extrusion equipment. Market forecasts are optimistic: the global market for hemp-based bioplastics is expected to reach a volume of several billion dollars by 2030.

## Cosmetics and Personal Care: Hemp Oil on the Rise

Hemp seed oil has established itself in recent years as a premium ingredient in the cosmetics industry. The oil, cold-pressed from the seeds of the hemp plant, contains a ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids (approximately 3:1) that is nearly ideal for human skin, along with gamma-linolenic acid, vitamin E and numerous antioxidants.

In skincare, hemp seed oil is valued for its moisturising, anti-inflammatory and skin-soothing properties. It is particularly suitable for sensitive, dry and eczema-prone skin. Major cosmetics brands such as The Body Shop, Dr. Bronner's and Origins have introduced hemp oil-based product lines. The global market for hemp cosmetics is growing at double-digit rates and is expected to exceed 1.5 billion dollars by 2028.

Beyond hemp seed oil, CBD (cannabidiol) plays a growing role in the cosmetics industry. CBD-infused creams, serums and balms are marketed for their anti-inflammatory and skin-calming effects. In the EU, CBD cosmetics products are subject to the Cosmetics Regulation and must meet strict safety requirements. The THC content must remain below 0.2 percent, and the products may not make therapeutic claims.

## Food: Hemp Seeds, Hemp Oil and Hemp Protein

Hemp seeds (also called hemp nuts) are a nutritional powerhouse. They contain all nine essential amino acids, a protein content of approximately 25 percent, abundant unsaturated fatty acids, fibre, and minerals such as magnesium, iron, zinc and phosphorus. Their fatty acid profile with the optimal omega-6-to-omega-3 ratio makes them one of the most balanced plant-based foods available.

Hulled hemp seeds (hemp hearts) can be eaten raw, sprinkled over salads, mixed into muesli or blended into smoothies. Hemp flour serves as a gluten-free protein source for baking. Hemp milk offers a plant-based alternative to cow's milk for people with lactose intolerance or following a vegan lifestyle.

Hemp protein powder has become a popular dietary supplement among athletes and health-conscious consumers. Compared to whey protein, hemp protein offers higher bioavailability of certain amino acids, is hypoallergenic and easier to digest. Its biological value is approximately 87 – comparable to beef.

Cold-pressed hemp seed oil is used as a premium cooking oil in cold preparations – for salad dressings, dips and as a finishing oil for warm dishes. It should not be used for frying, as its unsaturated fatty acids are heat-sensitive. In Germany, hemp seed oil is available in organic shops, health food stores and increasingly in conventional supermarkets.

## The Current Hemp Industry: Numbers and Markets

The global market for industrial hemp is growing rapidly. According to Grand View Research estimates, the global market value for industrial hemp was approximately 8.5 billion US dollars in 2024 and is expected to grow to over 18 billion dollars by 2030 – an annual growth rate exceeding 14 percent.

The most important cultivation countries for industrial hemp are China (by far the largest producer), Canada, the USA, France, the Netherlands and Germany. In the EU, France is the largest hemp producer with a cultivation area exceeding 20,000 hectares. Germany ranks third in Europe with approximately 7,000 hectares (as of 2025).

In Germany, the cultivation of industrial hemp was re-legalised in 1996 after having been completely banned in 1982. Today farmers may grow industrial hemp with a THC content below 0.3 percent, provided they use varieties from the EU Common Catalogue and register the cultivation with the Federal Agency for Agriculture and Food (BLE).

The value chain of the hemp industry is remarkably diverse. The plant can be utilised almost entirely: the bast fibres for textiles and composites, the shives for building materials and animal bedding, the seeds for food and cosmetics, the flowers for CBD products, and even the roots find use in traditional medicine and as compost.

## Sustainability: Hemp as a Climate Protector

The ecological advantages of hemp cultivation make the plant a beacon of hope in the fight against climate change. One hectare of hemp captures approximately 9 to 15 tonnes of CO₂ during its four-month growing season – more than most forest ecosystems absorb in a comparable period. Hemp improves soil quality through its deep taproots, which loosen the soil and access nutrients from deeper layers. The plant requires no pesticides and barely any herbicides, as its rapid and dense growth suppresses weeds.

Hemp is excellently suited as a preceding crop in crop rotation. Studies show that grain yields following hemp cultivation are 10 to 20 percent higher than after grain monoculture. The plant leaves the soil in better condition than it found it – a quality increasingly valued in regenerative agriculture.

The water consumption of hemp lies at approximately 300 to 500 litres per kilogram of dry matter – compared to cotton (10,000 litres per kilogram), that is a fraction. In regions with water scarcity, hemp is therefore a significantly more sustainable alternative.

## Challenges and Outlook

Despite all its advantages, the hemp industry faces significant challenges. Decades of prohibition led to a loss of processing knowledge and infrastructure. Modern hemp processing facilities – particularly for fibre decortication and cottonisation – are capital-intensive and unavailable in many regions.

The regulatory landscape remains complex. Although industrial hemp is legal in the EU and many other countries, THC thresholds, cultivation permits and marketing rules differ considerably. In the USA, industrial hemp was only federally legal since the 2018 Farm Bill – previously it was subject to the same restrictions as THC-containing cannabis.

Competition from established raw materials – cotton, wood, petroleum-based plastics – is fierce. Hemp products are currently still more expensive than conventional alternatives in many segments, as production volumes are smaller and processing chains less optimised. However, prices are expected to fall with growing demand and economies of scale.

The future of the hemp industry nevertheless looks promising. Growing demand for sustainable materials, tightening environmental regulations and rising consumer awareness are creating favourable market conditions. Research institutes and companies worldwide are working on new applications – from hemp supercapacitors for energy storage to hemp nanomaterials and hemp-based biofuels. The plant that has accompanied humanity for millennia could assume one of its most important roles in the 21st century: as a building block of a sustainable, post-fossil economy.